The dependency grammar is one of the grammar formalisms that is originated according to the dependency relations of lexical elements in a sentence. This dependency is based on the valence of the lexicon; therefore, in this formalism the semantic representation of the words as valence is the backbone of the grammar. The current paper reviews the book entitled “ Persian Grammar based on the Autonomous Theory in Dependency Grammar” according to three major contents. Firstly, the chapters of the book are briefly overviewed. Then, the book’ s content is evaluated and analyzed and the weak and strong points of the book are studied from different perspectives. In this section, some suggestions are provided for the terminology and expressed concepts. Since dependency grammar does not belong to generative grammar, a comparison is made between the dependency and phrase structure grammar formalisms to understand the content better and to ease the mind of the reader with the generative grammar background about the basic concepts of the dependency grammar. At the end, suggestions are provided to extend the dependency grammar in the book.

In the studies conducted on Persian grammar the properties, functions and distribution as well as the internal and external grammatical relations of the overt NP have been extensively and sufficiently investigated and described. Yet, the non-overt NP, Pro and pro, and its grammatical properties, relations and distribution have not been examined and described satisfactorily whereas it should be subjected to scrutiny and description because it is grammatically active through its relations, functions, and distribution. In this article four types of the non-overt NP in the Persian grammar are studied and described.

There are several ways for word-making, but literati and linguists, have described "combination" and "derivation" as one of the most important processes in the word-making; In this regard, the Persian language is due to the "Indo- European" language family and in this family, the process of word- making is mainly made up with "combination", is classified as "combinatorial languages, " and on the other hand, the Arabic language, have same origin with the "Sami" languages, these languages is introduced and classified in the "derivational languages" because of the importance of "derivation" in the process of word-making. In this article, it has been tried to investigate the two processes of "composition and "derivation" in two languages "Persian and Arabic" with more in-depth analysis and from this perspective, a comparative review of these two languages is investigated…

Introduction The present study was carried out to standardize the grammar of the story in the narrative discourse of Persian speakers with communication disorders for clinical examination. Psycholinguistic approaches have already been used in Iran to evaluate some aspects of discourse among people with speech and language disorders. The Persian Narrative Discourse Test (PNDT) was developed based on Fredericksen's model, and its validity and reliability were evaluated. This test is designed to quantify sentence complexity, coherence, and overall cohesion (referential, relational, lexical cohesion, deletion, and substitution). Since Fredriksen's model is suggested to investigate the damage levels of narrative discourse in the processing stage of conceptual structures, the evaluation of story grammar is also proposed. Accordingly, the present study aimed to include the evaluation scale of story grammar in the Persian version of the test. Methods Using a Likert scale to evaluate the narrative, a five-level questionnaire was used to measure the clarity of the elements of the four narrative parts using Thorndyke's hierarchical model: the scene is composed of time, place, and characters. The topic consists of the title of the narrative and the main incident. The plot consists of the characters’ efforts, the results of these efforts, the resolution consists of the characters' intentions, and the result of the narrative. In the above-mentioned questionnaire, six linguists and six speech and language pathologists were consulted to determine whether the proposed questions cover the observed behavioral domain (story grammar) and are simple and tangible for all examiners, and also whether the questionnaire has high content validity index based on the experts’ opinion. A second part of the research was conducted to determine the differential validity, examining story grammar as it relates to retelling stories and creating improvised narratives by two groups of elementary school students with and without hearing impairment in normal elementary schools. The reason for choosing the age of 6 to 12 years (primary school age) for this assessment is the evolution of the critical stages of narrative development at the end of five years of age so that children can organize integrated chains of events with a map and subsequent events and related endings. Thirty-six elementary students in regular schools were evaluated, including 18 students with hearing impairments (accessible sample) and 18 without hearing impairments (random sample). All hearing-impaired students had completed oral or verbal auditory rehabilitation for more than two years before entering the normal school assessment, and none had any physical, mental, movement, or psychological problems. Newsha tests were accomplished for hearing, language, and speech development, including listening skills, language comprehension, expressive language, speech clarity, cognitive skills, social skills, and motor skills. At least the low domain score was achieved to develop the desired skills in normal children. During the test, audiologists checked the hearing aids and cochlear implants of all children and verified that the device and its settings were correct. Children were homogeneous in terms of age, sex, socioeconomic level of schools, parents' education, and an intragroup comparison of hearing aid users, and cochlear implant users was made before the main assessment. No significant differences were observed in any of the two tasks between the two subgroups. A comparative assessment was conducted between two groups: One with hearing impairment and the other without. Data were collected by recording two oral narrative tasks, including telling a previously heard story and improvising a narrative. After transcribing, the data were entered into SPSS version 26 for statistical analysis. An internal evaluator and an external evaluator also evaluated the reliability of the test. Results A significant difference was found between the average scores of hearing and hearing-impaired participants in narrative creation and story retelling, and in both cases, the hearing group scored significantly higher than the hearing-impaired group. The current research compared the scores separately to determine where this difference comes from, as seen in Table 1. Table 1. Comparing the average scores of the hearing (n=18) and hearing-impaired (n=18) groups by separating the parts of the story grammar Story grammar Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Difference Pooled St Dev T df P Setting Improvising a narrative Hearing Group 0.490 0.279 0.066 0.130 0.261 1.49 34 0.145 Hearing-impaired group 0.360 0.243 0.057 Telling a previously heard story Hearing Group 0.537 0.291 0.069 0.147 0.232 1.9 34 0.066 Hearing-impaired group 0.390 0.151 0.036 Theme Improvising a narrative Hearing Group 0.440 0.509 0.120 0.205 0.388 1.58 34 0.133 Hearing-impaired group 0.235 0.205 0.048 Telling a previously heard story Hearing Group 0.620 0.212 0.050 0.1 0.168 1.79 34 0.083 Hearing-impaired group 0.520 0.106 0.025 Episodes Improvising a narrative Hearing Group 0.523 0.025 0.006 0.377 0.031 36.980 34 0.000 Hearing-impaired group 0.147 0.0135 0.008 Telling a previously heard story Hearing Group 0.627 0.040 0.010 0.214 0.038 17.080 34 0.000 Hearing-impaired group 0.413 0.035 0.008 Resolution Improvising a narrative Hearing Group 0.625 0.106 0.025 0.385 0.0756 15.280 34 0.000 Hearing-impaired group 0.240 0.014 0.003 Telling a previously heard story Hearing Group 0.775 0.078 0.018 0.405 0.0683 17.790 34 0.000 Hearing-impaired group 0.370 0.057 0.013   No significant difference was found between the average scores of hearing and hearing-impaired groups in creating a narrative or retelling the story in the scene and topic sections. However, in the episodes and resolution sections, the hearing group scores significantly higher than the hearing-impaired group. Conclusion A significant difference in the story grammar between retelling and improvising narratives aligns with research that shows hearing-impaired children, even with the aid of modern technology, continue to face challenges in advanced language usage. This is particularly evident when they create narratives compared to their peers with less severe hearing difficulties. A test developed based on Thorndyke's hierarchical story grammar model was found to be effective for evaluating the subsections of the story grammar by people with communication differences, and its validity and reliability were also confirmed. Ethical Considerations Compliance with Ethical Guidelines In the current research, we adhere to ethical principles by obtaining written and informed consent from participants and providing them with essential information about the research process. We ensure confidentiality by coding participant names and allowing them the freedom to withdraw from the study at any time for any reason. The results of the tests carried out by each participant to their parents and the necessary guidance to improve children's narrative skills without imposing any financial costs. Moreover, the research has an approval code from the Ethics Committee of Tarbiat Modares University with code: IR.MODARES.REC.1400.072, Approval date: 2021-06-12. Authors' Contribution Design, data collection, and study preparation by the first and second authors. Statistical analysis by the third author. Supervised the research method by the fourth author and the final review by the second and fifth authors. Funding The authors have not received funding for this manuscript. Acknowledgments The present article is taken from the PhD thesis of the first author of the research at Tarbiat Modares University; therefore, the authors feel it is their duty to express their utmost gratitude for the sincere cooperation of all the students participating in the present study and their parents, as well as school administrators. Conflict of interest The authors reported no potential conflict of interest.

Maulānā Obeydollāh Abīdī was a poet and scholar of Iranian descent (d.1306 A.H./1888 C.E.) who lived in Bengal during the British Raj, and had acquired a good working knowledge of several languages, including Persian, Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Arabic and English. He is the author of many works, some in prose and some in verse, most of which remain unpublished. These include his divan, an autobiography and several volumes of textbooks for teaching Persian to students. Abīdī is also the author of a five-volume set of Persian grammar entitled dastūr-e pārsī āmūz (the Grammar-Book for Teaching Persian). Three volumes of this set were printed and published in India towards the end of the nineteenth century. In this paper, the author who has examined the second volume of the series reports on it. Abīdī may be considered a pioneer grammarian, and so most of his terminology is of his own coinage. The seven parts of speech that Abīdīenumerates are 1) esm (noun), 2) nāyeb-e esm (pronoun), 3) fe'l (verb), 4) vasf-ol-fe'l (modifying adverb) 5) rābef-e kalāmī (preposition), 6) rābet-e jomaī (conjunction) and 7) asvāt (interjections).

One of the current problems in the era of translation is that some translators are not familiar with or don’t pay necessity attention to choosing correct syntactic equals in the target language. According to this, the comparison of the syntax structure in two languages, and illustrating the ideas of solutions for translate language structures from source to target language is very important in comparative Linguistics and translation...

The grammatical argument of contention means playing two functions by one word or phrase in Persian language sentences. There is ambiguity and disagreement in Persian grammar articles and books about contention or the appositional function. In the present study, the contention in Persian grammar has been studied and an attempt has been made to answer the following questions: 1) How is the contention in Persian grammar sources explained in different sentences? 2) What is the connection between the discussion of contention and the categories of ambiguity, suprasegmental units, deletion (reduction), and deep structure of language sentences? 3) With which grammatical issues and rules does the belief in contention in Persian language sentences lead to contradiction and conflict? The result of the research shows that in Persian syntax, each word or phrase plays only one function in the syntagmatic axis in the sentence, and the cause of the contention is the combination of the form with the meaning, and considering a compound sentence as two independent sentences, therefore the contention has interfered with the categories of deletion, compound sentence interpretation, ambiguity, and dependency. Introduction In Persian grammar articles and books, the discussion of contention or the appositional relation (dual function of a word or phrase in the sentence structure) has been raised according to the Arabic syntax and is generally defined as follows: contention is when one of the components of the word in a compound sentence plays a different function for each of the verbs. There is disagreement about the issue of contention in Persian grammar. Some of the factors that have caused this disagreement are: the newly established writing technique of Persian grammar, the imposition of grammatical rules and categories of other languages ​​in Persian, the combination of historical grammar with contemporary grammar, and so on. Due to this disagreement, the present study investigates the issue of contention in Persian grammar. The authors will continue the issue according to the hypothesis that there is no contention in Persian sentences and the belief in contention (i. e. two functions for a word or phrase in the sentence structure) will disrupt and ineffective other rules of Persian grammar, especially in teaching Persian grammar will create an unnecessary challenge. Materials and Methods In this research, first, the outlooks of Persian grammar scholars about contention are presented using a descriptive method. Then, using an analytical method, based on the evidence of the same sources, the contention in various sentences of the Persian language is examined and criticized. Finally, the analysis and suggestions of the authors in this field are presented. Results An examination of the views of Persian grammar scholars shows that the category of contention has occurred due to ignoring the structure of the compound sentence, the category of omission, subordination, and emphasis on deep structure and sometimes the form of sentences. Accordingly, the authors suggest that based on the basic rules of grammar, including the definition of the sentence, one function of a noun and a noun phrase in the sentence, the principle of the economy (omission or reduction), and subordination, there is no need to raise the issue of contention in Persian grammar. Therefore, the evidence related to appositional relation or contention in Persian grammar sources can be described and explained based on other grammatical rules. Conclusion Contention in Persian sentences has been discussed according to the syntax of the Arabic language and in a variety of simple, basic, and compound sentences. In the sources that have considered the occurrence of contention in Persian sentences, several factors underlie this view. For example, referring to the deep structure of the sentence, ignoring the post determiner of the type of explanatory relational sentence, considering a compound sentence as two independent sentences, and relying on the form and formal structure of the sentence have caused a word or group in the sentence structure to have two functions that sometimes are repetitive but the same and sometimes different from each other. Belief in the occurrence of contention in Persian sentences interferes with the categories of omission and its types. Contention also conflicts with the interpretation of the compound sentence and the resolution of the dependent clause (dependent) in the form of a noun or adjective phrase in a compulsory or optional function in the sentence. Also, the occurrence of contention in Persian sentences is not possible because each word or phrase in the structure of a larger unit (i. e. the sentence), has only one function. Since the compound sentence is also considered an independent sentence in Persian grammar, a separate analysis of the compound sentence as two independent head and dependent sentences is not necessary and justified. It seems that believing in contention in Persian is in some way imposed by the Arabic syntactic rules and insisting on matching another language category with Persian.

The main purpose of this study is to explain the word order of topicalized constituents in non-pro.making persian topicalization based on Functional Discourse Grammar. Since this grammar does not believe in concepts such as movement, we will also seek to explain this process in base-generated procedures. Therefore, in this study, in order to achieve the above goals, the method of mapping the linguistic elements of sentences containing non-pro.making Persian topicalized constituents in morphosyntactic templates in four absolute initial, second, medial and final positions and infinite relative ones presented in Functional Discourse Grammar was considered. This study is based on a descriptive-analytical method and the examples are taken from selected samples of Persian speech and written texts, which after introducing the mechanisms of this grammar,have been analyzed based on the principles of this theory. The method of determining the order of constituents used in the present study is the dynamic method of FDG that is inspired by the method of determining the word order of Greenberg. In this approach instead of three categories of subject, object and verb, respectively, the concepts of actor, undergoer and predicate, determine the word order of the languages of the world. The results indicate that in marked constituents such as topicalization, considering the communicative intention of the speaker, various elements including ,thematic and non-thematic elements and even predicates can be topicalized and on the other hand, considering that, based on the principles of this grammar, the topicalized constituent in the interpersonal level is given priority in entering morphosyntactic templates, so the topicalization process is not the result of movement, but the topicalized element is produced in base-generated procedures in the same position. The results also show that Functional Discourse Grammar is an appropriate and efficient method by referring to the three principles of iconicity, domain integrity and functional stability in determining the constituent arrangement of sentences containing non-pro.making Persian topicalization.

The process of compound predicates (CPr) formation in Persian has got little attention on behalf of linguists. This paper aims to situate the components of Persian light verb constructions in contexts that can be justifiably invoked as a motivation for CPr formation. The authors believe that CPrs can be considered as direct or indirect products of incorporation process.We hold here a broad concept of incorporation, namely X incorporation (XI), in which X indicates categories including nominals, adjectives and prepositional phrases.This process, explicated by means of some concepts from Cognitive Grammar, involves CPrs originating from complete clauses, and then passing through a compositional path where a nonverbal and a verbal element are selected out of a clause and end up in a complex predicate. In such a hypothetical path, a verb argument is occasionally omitted and the verb complement or adjunct, having a higher cognitive salience, is incorporated to it. The investigation will continue with focusing on the LVCs constructed with LVkardan ’do, make’, as the most frequently used light verb in Persian. The paper will also explore how different paths could be associated with different ‘heavy’ meanings of kardan. Moreover, each CPr may further provide speakers with constructional schemas upon which other LVCs formed with a given LV can be sanctioned. Considering different kinds of LVCs explained in this paper, we can say that the semantic contribution of LVs falls into one of the two following possibilities depending on how the LVC in question is formed:i. Compositional path is directly conceivable. When this is the case, the semantics of LV is equivalent to, or derived from, a main or extended sense of its non-light counterpart, as in emtehan dadan ‘to take an exam’ (lit. to exam-give), xab raftan ‘to fall asleep’ (lit. to sleep N-go), and lane kardan ‘to nest’ (lit. to nest N-do).ii. Compositional path is indirectly accessible through a constructional schema.In this case, the LV’s semantic contribution can be thought of as dissolved in the constructional meaning of the relevant schema, as inimeyl zadan ‘to email’ (lit. to email N-hit) whose LV has nothing to do with ‘hit‘, but imports a sense of ‘communication’ immanent in the constructional schema X+zadan which is in turn inherited from telegraf zadan ‘to telegraph’ (lit. to telegraph N-hit).iii. The compound verb is a denominal verb in which the light verb serves to verbalize a non-verbal element. In this case the semantic contribution of the light verb is to add processual meaning to the predicate.

Each verb carries markers of grammatical categories such as tense, person, mood, and aspect. Each marker has syntactic and semantic significance which refer to an action or state. Conjugation is the way in which a particular verb changes (conjugates) for tense, person, or number. Stem signifies the tense and action. Mood refers to a set of contrasts which are often shown by the form of the verb and which express the speaker"s or writer"s attitude to what is said or written. This occurs as a result of the factors included in the verb and in the sentence. Some of these factors are syntactic and some are semantic, and in grammar are known as the semantic and syntactic markers of the mood. Recognition of the mood depends upon the recognition of the verb, its meaning, and the factors that influence them Because of the extensibility of the semantic aspect of the mood. the definitions in this regard are varied. Scholars have defmed mood as verb, as an aspect of the verb, as grammatical derivation of verbs, as a method of verb"s usage, as the speaker"s attitude towards verb, as the speaker"s relation towards the form of the verb, etc. In the present survey, the nature of the subjunctive mood in Persian grammar is analysed.